Economic Relations between Kazakhstan and Russia
In the metallurgical industry,
the development of production of ferrous metals and the raw-materials basis of
such production continued, including the revamping of the Karaganda
metallurgical plant with the aid of foreign investment; its re-orientation
toward the iron ore pellets of the Sokolovsko – Saribai mining association; the
development of production of stainless steel and rolled metal and the building
of an electric metallurgical plant for the production of stainless steels in
Aktobe; further development of ferrous alloys in Aktobe and Aksu and of its
raw-materials basis –the Donskoy ore –dressing plant; the re-orientation of
idle production lines of JSC Khimprom to the production of ferromanganese.
Organizational measures were taken in 1994 to develop production of fireproof
materials.
At the same time there was a
fall in the production of ferrous metallurgy due to an aggravation of the raw
materials and fuel shortage and a parlous state of equipment at enterprises of
this industry. The decline in industrial production was to a considerable
extent due to non-solvency of enterprises in view of their insufficient
financial resources, non-payment by the buyers for products delivered, and weak
financial discipline.
The decline in non-ferrous
metallurgy continued, as production of copper, titanium, and manganese fell. To
check the decline in this branch of industry, the production lines at the
Chilisai ore-dressing plant switched to a different product; the Zyryanovsky
lead plant was rebuilt, and its commissioning was brought forward; the raw –
materials basis for the titanium industry was created, as was the Syrymbet tin
field, the tin being produced at the Tselinny chemical plant. The functioning
gold mines and ore-dressing plants were revamped, and work was accelerated to
develop major gold fields at Vasilkov, Bakyrchik, and Akbakai.
In 1994, the share of
machine-building industry and machine tooling in the overall industrial
production continued to fall, amounting to six percent. Low investment
activity, non- competitiveness of the Kazakhstan machine-building industry,
limited financial consumer capacity predetermined an almost twofold reduction
volumes in most types of machine –building branches even compared to the crisis-ridden
year of 1993.
The situation was worst in the
chemical and petrochemical industries, whose production capacities far exceeded
the republic’s domestic needs. Considerable share of the product was exported
to other CIS countries and the “far abroad”, but the enterprises suffered from
shortage of raw materials, even shortages of oil, which is produced in
Kazakhstan itself. JSC Polipropilen, AKPO, Khimvolokno production association
used imported raw materials only. In 1994, the decline in most types of
petrochemical products reached 55-60 percent. Oil refining dropped by
20.3percent.
The timber, woodworking, and
papermaking industries suffered from shortage of raw materials. Between the
beginning of 1993 and the end of 1994, the production of timber fell by 21
percent, and this had a negative effect on the state of production at sawmills
and woodworking factories. The production of saw-timber, chipboard, and
cardboard fell by 31.9, 59.3, and 47.5 percent respectively, but the production
of paper increased threefold.
In 1993 and 1994, decline in
production also continued in the construction materials industry. Production of
cement declined to the level of 1973, while production of pre cast concrete
products dropped to the level of 1974. There was a considerable drop in
production at enterprises producing asbestos cement pipes and coupling (by
34.2percent), linoleum (by 40.3 percent), cement (by 61.6 percent), asbestos
(by 71.2 percent), bricks (by 78.8 percent). Production of sanitary wares
dropped by 25 percent.
During the last five years, GDP
volumes continued to fall, declining roughly twofold; the greatest decline (by
25.4 percent) was observed in 1994, and in 1995 it was almost nine percent.
However, during the time of the reform considerable changes took place
in the structure of GDP: The share of services grew sharply – from 32 percent
in 1992 to 47 percent in 1995; the share of commodity production declined by
12 percent. The volume and share of services mostly grew in the trade, .•.
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Competitiveness of the Kazakhstan machine-building industry,
limited financial consumer capacity predetermined an almost twofold reduction
in production volumes in most types of machine-building branches even compared
to the crisis-ridden year of 1993.
The situation was worst in the chemical and
petrochemical industries, whose production capacities far exceeded the
republic's domestic needs. A considerable share of the product was exported to
other CIS countries and the "far abroad," but the enterprises
suffered from shortages of raw materials, even shortages of oil, which is
produced in Kazakhstan itself. JSC Polipropilen, AKPO, Khimvolokno production
association in Kustanai, Shymkentshina production association used imported raw
materials only. In 1994, the decline in most types of petrochemical products
reached 55-60 percent. Oil refining dropped by 20.3 percent.
The timber, woodworking, and
papermaking industries suffered from shortages of raw materials. Between the
beginning of 1993 and the end of 1994, the production of timber fell by 21
percent, and this had a negative effect on the state of production at sawmills
and woodworking factories. The production of saw-timber, chipboard, and
cardboard fell by 31.9, 59.3, and 47.5 percent respectively, but the production
of paper increased threefold.
In 1993 and 1994, decline in production also
continued in the construction materials industry. Production of cement declined
to the level of 1973, while production of pre cast concrete products dropped
to the level of 1974. There was a considerable drop in production at
enterprises producing asbestos cement pipes and couplings (by 34.2 percent),
linoleum (by 40.3 percent), cement (by 61.6 percent), asbestos (by 71.2 percent),
bricks (by 78.8 percent). Production of sanitary wares dropped by 25 percent.
During .the last five years, GDP volumes
continued to fall, declining roughly twofold; the greatest decline (by 25.4
percent) was observed in 1994, and in 1995 it was almost nine percent.
However, during the time of the reform
considerable changes took place in the structure of GDP: The share of services
grew sharply - from 32 percent in 1992 to 47 percent in 1995; the share of
commodity production declined by 12 percent. The volume and share of services
mostly grew in the trade] in banking and finances, insurance, and realty, while
the share of everyday services fell. In other words, the main trend in the
changes of macro-economic proportions was a move towards parameters
characteristic of countries with well-developed market economies. The share of
consumption of end products rose to 69 percent of utilized GDP as contrasted
with 58 percent in 1993. Investment in 1995 amounted to some 30 percent of GDP.
Beginning in the second half of 1994,
certain positive changes began to occur: a decline in the rate of inflation, a
growth in accumulation of capital, a stabilization in the exchange rate of the
national currency, a decline in the banks' interests rates, and a relative
growth in industrial production.
The rate of inflation steadily declined from
4.9 in June 1994 to 3.2 percent in April 1995. The decline in production, which
sharply Increased in November 1993 through March 1994, practically, ceased in
some branches in 1994. As a result, industry as a whole grew by 0.3 percent in
September, by 1.1 percent in December, and by 1.2 percent in April. As distinct
from the previous years, a certain stabilization of production, which began in
June 1994, was accompanied by a certain slowing down rather than acceleration
of inflation.
The rate of price growth in the production and consumption
sectors of the economy in 1995 slowed down. The highest inflation occurred in
January (an increase of 108.9 percent compared to the previous month), and the
lowest, in August (102.1 percent). The annual index of consumer prices
throughout the republic was estimated at 160 percent (the monthly index, 104.3
percent, whereas the annual index of inflation of consumer prices in 1994
amounted to 1256 percent, which corresponds to a monthly inflation rate of
123.4 percent. (The annual index of production prices was at the level of 141.2
percent).
The positive dynamics in the consumer
and wholesale prices was achieved above all by harsh financial and credit
policies and the government's measures aimed at stage by stage liberalization
of prices and tariffs for commodities and services, which resulted hi a sharp
reduction in the range of regulated prices. At the beginning of 1996, only the
prices of electric power, heating, gas, passenger and freight railway traffic
were regulated, and at the local level, regulation involved prices" and
tariffs of communal services and the services of urban passenger transport.
In 1995, the monetary and credit
policies were characterized by changes in the monetary and credit instruments
of the National Bank, its operations at the inter bank credit, currency, and
stock markets, and the development of the market of state securities. Whereas
hi 1994 and January 1995 the principal instruments were centralized and
auction credits, in 1995 the emphasis shifted from state-apportioned credits to
the development of securities markets and auction credits.
The primary market of state treasury
bonds actively began to develop. The volume of trading on this market is steadily
growing, with demand exceeding supply. Toward the end of 1995, 4.3 billion
tenge's worth of treasury bonds had been issued. In September 1995, pawnshop
credits were introduced, with state treasury bonds as collateral.
The
National Bank's average refinancing rate went from 210 percent in January to
52.5 percent in December 1995. This reduction was made possible by a
considerable alleviation'' of the inflation situation.
The weighted average percentage rate
for auction credits amounted in 1994 to 292.61 percent; during ten months of
1995, it went down to 103.29 percent, and in October 1995 it stabilized at the
52.56 percent level.
In 1995, the reduction in production
output amounted to eight percent. Production output fell at 44 percent of
enterprises. Of the 220 most important kinds of industrial products, production
of 48 kinds increased and that of 167, decreased. It should be noted at the
same time that hi 1995 decline in production was overcome, and there was an
increase in production compared to the previous year in electric power
production, metallurgy, and in the chemical and petrochemical industries.
In 1995, the policy of
liberalization of foreign trade activity continued; distribution of export
quotas was completely eliminated, and the list of licensed export products was
considerably reduced. Kazakhstan traded with 124 states of near and far
abroad.
In the framework of official aid for
development, Kazakhstan received a number of credits to the tune of $1.3
billion from international financial organizations and individual donor
countries.
One of the main types of foreign resources
for the republic was direct investment, in particular the setting up of joint
ventures and foreign enterprises. The rate of establishment of joint ventures
in Kazakhstan is fairly high. Thus, at the end: of 1990 there were just 15 of
them, while at the end of 1995 more than 2000. JVs operated in the republic, of
which 500 operated on foreign capital only. Most of these were set up in the;
mining industries.
From the beginning of 1995, steadily
increasing numbers of enterprises were turned over for administration. Toward
the end of December 1995, external administration was introduced at some 20
major industrial enterprises in various sectors. The necessary legislative
basis was created for the involvement of foreign capital in Kazakhstan.
Thus the implementation of economic
policies in 1992-1995 in Kazakhstan resulted in the liberalization and openness
of the economy and the expansion of private enterprise.
There were significant shifts in the
market infrastructure. Trade and the banking sector developed rapidly, and
other financial institutions were born - in other words, there was, progress in
those spheres of the economy that had previously; been underdeveloped but that
were vital for the functioning of the market economy.
The liberalization of foreign and domestic
trade resulted in a slight reduction of export in 1994 and early 1995 compared
to the decline in the volume of GDP. The export of commodities, mostly to CIS
countries, amounted to $13 billion in 1994 and $4.97 billion in 1995. The
greatest share of exports went to the Russian Federation — 47 percent, or $1.4
billion's worth in 1994; in 1995, the exports amounted to $2.8 billion, including
$2.1 billion to Russia.
Russia's share in Kazakhstan's imports from
CIS countries at the beginning of 1995 was the largest - 70 percent;
Turkmenistan's, 10 percent; and Uzbekistan's, 9 percent. Of considerable
significance is the fact that more than 50 enterprises securing Russia's
defense interests work on Kazakhstani territory. All principal roads of Russia
leading east and southeast, Yuzhsib and Transsib railways included, pass
through Kazakhstan. Major Russian high voltage power lines, communications
lines, and pipelines are also connected with Kazakhstan.
As before, Kazakhstan's exports to
Russia are raw materials, oil and petrochemical products, as well as products
of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy.
Deliveries of ferrous metals (35.2
percent), copper and items made of copper (15.1 percent) make up a considerable
share of exports. Russian enterprises are also the main consumers of
Kazakhstan oil and petroleum products, which amount to 40 percent of the
exports of mineral products.
In 1994, Kazakhstan's imports of
industrial and technical goods and of consumer goods from the far and near
abroad amounted to $3.4 billion; in 1995, the figure was $3.7 billion. The
largest share of imports fell on Russia - $1.3 billion and $1.8 billion
respectively. Imports from Russia covered 30 percent of the demand of
households and the republic's enterprises for raw materials, 70 percent of the
demand for industrial manufactured products (including 90 percent of the demand,
for complex household appliances), and more than 70 percent of the * demand for
products of the chemical and timber industries. Kazakhstan's imports from
Russia are dominated by electric; machines, equipment, mechanisms, and,
transport vehicles. Their share in over imports amounts to 70-percent. There are
also imports of considerable amounts of raw materials for the foodstuffs
industry and the foodstuffs themselves (10.2 percent), mineral products and
metals (10.1 percent), and other consumer goods (7.8 percent). More than half
of imported mineral products and non-ferrous metals come from Russia.
The share of deliveries against convertible
currency in the export-import operations between Kazakhstan and Russia amounted
to 6.5 percent of the total volume of exports; the share of baiter operations
was 32.6 percent; and the share of clearing and similar operations, 60.9
percent. In this process, baiter deals did not as a rule result in a balanced
and equivalent exchange. Analyses of export-import barter deals in 1993-1995
shows that total exports were twice as large as imports of commodities. As a
result of these operations, considerable funds of Kazakhstan Commodity
producers annually stay in Russia.
On the whole, the results of economic
development show that the republic was close to achieving macroeconomic
stabilization, that the impact of market incentives increased, and that a new
system of reference points and motivations developed. The main problems of the
critical period of development were partially solved, but new ones emerged.
Harsh monetary and credit policies,
liberalization of the domestic and foreign markets promoted the formation in
the republic of market mechanisms for the regulations of the economy and for
ensuring equal possibilities and guarantees for all the agents of economic
activity. In this situation the possibility appeared of creating a common
economic space covering Kazakhstan and Russia, in which free circulation of
commodities, capital, and labor would be made possible.
The development of
Kazakhstani-Russian relations between 1991 and 1995 showed that the two states
adopted a great many documents covering a wide range of economic issues.
The implementation of these
agreements created favorable conditions for establishing economic links
between economic agents and for the development of a common market that would
be advantageous for the economic interests of both Kazakhstan and Russia.
The relations between the two
countries in the economic sphere developed, against the background of improving
multilateral cooperation: within the CIS framework. The legal basis for this,
process was the treaty on the jetting-up of the CIS Economic Union signed on
September 24, 1993.' This document proclaimed as the main goal a voluntary,
stage-by-stage re-creation, on new, market principles of unified economic
space, or common market, with free circulation of commodities, services,
capital, and labor. On the basis of the treaty, a solid legal groundwork was
created. On October 21, 1994, an interstate economic committee was set up at
a-session of the council of CIS heads of state, and a memorandum on the main
directions of integration development of the Commonwealth of Independent States
was signed. These documents envisaged a stage-by-stage formation of a customs
union and the possibility of movement of different countries at different
speeds toward a unified economic space within the Economic Union.
A characteristic feature of the
situation in the CIS is universal recognition of the need for stepping up
integration processes in the economic interaction of CIS countries. It should
be noted that, among CIS countries, economic relations were most intense
between Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, and Byelorussia, with 80 percent of
commodity circulation within the CIS taking place within these countries.
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