Генетически модифицированная пища и клонирование

The latest months enabled experts to comprehend soberly the situation, to estimate some methodical and technological difficulties lying in the field of mammal cloning. Cloning of a human being can create unsuccessful copies, ugly creatures, but all mankind will bear the responsibility for his or her ugliness. [3]

Problems facing to cloning.

Cloning of bodies and fabrics is the problem number one in the field of transplantology, traumatology and in other areas of medicine and biology. Cloned bodies become a kind of rescue for people who have got in automobile failures or any other accidents or for people who need radical help because of diseases caused by age.

The most evident effect of cloning is that childless people will be able to have their own children. Today millions married couples all over the world suffer because they are doomed to remain without descendants. In our country each sixth or seventh married couple is barren. This problem generates so many tragedies and family dramas! This situation can be changed. It is possible to have your own child, your real continuation in time. [2]

 Cloning will help people who suffer genetic diseases.

And still. Fans of exotic things will always exist among humans. They bequeath to send their ashes on a rocket aside the Sun. They spend thousands of dollars for saving their bodies in cryogenic chambers till that time when medicine will manage to return them into a normal condition and to relieve them from illnesses which are incurable today. Moreover, there also will be fans of exotic things in the field of cloning. Somebody will wish to see his or her own copy during his or her lives. Others wish to revive during another historical epoch: 50 - 100 years later.

Cloning of the person: arguments in protection.

Cloning of a human person is close to reality due to historical scientific breakthrough of the doctor Yang Wilmot and his colleagues from Great Britain. This opportunity potentially gives all of us fabulous advantages. Unfortunately,  misleading reports of mass-media and negative emotional reaction (which was generated by erroneous science fiction) influenced to the discussion of this theme. The negative attitude towards cloning of people is only consequence of fascinating and new idea. If the public entered into error will impose a full interdiction on cloning of a person, a sad episode in the human history would appear. [1]

What is the human clone?

Actually, the clone is not simply an identical twin of some other person and they differ in periods of time. However, science-fiction novels and films have created an impression as if human clones are thoughtless zombies, monsters like Frankenstein, etc. But it is complete nonsense. Human clones will be usual human beings, perfect as you and me. They will be born by usual women after 9 months of pregnancy; they will be born and will be grown up in a family, as well as any other child. They will need 18 years to become adults, as other people do. Hence, the clone-twin will be some decades younger than the original; therefore there is no danger, that people will confuse the clone-twin to the original. Just as identical twins, a clone and his donor of DNA will have various fingerprints. The clone will not inherit anything from memoirs of the original individual. Due to all these distinctions, the clone is not an x-copy or the double of his donor, but a younger identical twin. Human clones will have the same legal rights and duties, as any other person does. Clones will be human beings in the fullest sense. You will not have the right to use a clone as a slave. The slavery was forbidden in the USA in 1865 and then by the United Nations Convention of the Human Rights.

It is necessary to emphasize, that the cloning of human beings should be carried out on an individual voluntary basis only. The alive person, should give his or her legal permission. As well as the woman who will bear a clone-twin and then grow this child, should take her own decisions. The woman is required for cloning to bear the child. So, there is no danger that scientists-villains will create thousands of clones in confidential laboratories. Cloning will be done only after requests and with participation of usual people.

What can we expect from human clones? The answer can be found from exploration of identical twins. The clone repeats the original individual on appearance completely and has the same growth and a constitution. For well-known supermodels and movie stars, it can be the most important quality.

The objections, which are put forward against cloning of the person.

Some politics in the United States now suggest saving us from all misfortunes connected with cloning of people by legislation. In my opinion, it is an interesting idea but if you examine the problem more soberly, you will see that serious problems actually do not exist. In several cases when abusing is possible, it can be prevented with the help of legislation. Unique objection that remains because of the analysis is that the technology of cloning is not perfect yet. It is a justification for future researching, but not for an interdiction.

 Cloning would reduce a genetic variety; make us more vulnerable to epidemics, etc.

More than 5 billion people exist on this planet. Obviously, cloning of people will carry out in very modest scales because of prospective cost of procedure. More than the majority of women will not want to be mothers of clones-twins. Many years will pass before the total of clones will reach even 1 million people all over the world. On percentage parity, it would make a microscopic part from the general population and would not influence to genetic variety of people. If in some long-term future cloning becomes widely widespread some restrictions on such activity will can be justified. If the clone of each person on a planet is created, a genetic variety will not decrease, there still will be 5 billion genetically various individuals.

It can lead to creation of monsters or ugly creatures.

Cloning is not the same as genetic engineering. During cloning DNA is copied. Then one more person appears an exact twin of an existing individual.  Therefore, it is not monster or ugly creature. Genetic engineering would mean modification of human DNA. Therefore, there can appear another person, who will not look like to existing. It presumably could lead to creation of very unusual people, even monsters. Genetic engineering has big positive potential. It is valid very much and should be carried out only with the greatest care and under supervision. Cloning is safe and banal in comparison with genetic engineering. If you are afraid of cloning genetic engineering should horrify you.

Millionaires can clone themselves only to receive parts of bodies for transplantation.

This is one of silly applications for cloning. The human clone is a human being. In a free society, you cannot make somebody to give you one of his or her parts of body. In addition, you cannot kill other person to receive one of his parts of body. Existing laws interfere with such abusing. You must also notice that if your clone-twin has received a trauma in accident, you can be asked to give one of your kidneys to rescue a life to a clone! If donor of body is a child, society can wish to interfere. Actually, removal of any part of body of a child for transplantation to other person is very disputable practice, which should be adjusted strictly.

Many future appendices of technology of cloning appear in spheres of transplantation of bodies, skin transplantations for victims of fires, etc.

Do we need 200 clones of Sophie Loren or Sindi Crawford?

If we speak about cloning of an alive person, it is extremely improbable, that he will agree to creation of 200 clones. The person will approve creation no more than 1 or two clones. In addition, we shall recollect, that clones of the person cannot be made in laboratory in big quantity. Each of them should be mature by a woman, as well as any other child. How do critics of cloning represent that it is possible to persuade 200 women to bear these identical babies? If we really worry, that it is possible, the society can simply forbid creation more than two clones of one person.

If we speak about cloning someone, who has already died, the question of restriction of quantity of clones-twins will become a reasonable theme for reflections and debates. Moreover, we will have a lot of time for these debates. Certainly, if there are some individuals with identical appearance it will not lead to degradation of human essence of these people. [5]

Cloning of died people.

There is the little-known fact about doctor Vilmut’s procedure of cloning. It is said to be made with frozen cells. It means that there is no necessity for cloning, that donor of DNA must be alive. If the sample of a fabric of the person is frozen properly, the person could be cloned through long time after his death. In case of people, which have already died also whose fabrics was not frozen, cloning becomes more complex, and today's technology does not allow making it. However, for the biologist it would be very courageous to declare, that this procedure is impossible.

All fabrics of people contain DNA and can potentially be a source for cloning. The list of fabrics includes human hair, bones and teeth. Unfortunately, DNA starts to decay and destroy segments of genetic code some weeks after death. After 60 million years only short fragments DNA of dinosaurs were kept. Therefore, chances of realization of guiro-park are insignificant. However, there are good chances of restoration of sequence DNA from samples of a human fabric. Imagine a genetic code as a book which paragraphs or pages were left in the casual image. If we have only one copy of the book, the full text cannot be restored. Fortunately, we have more, than one copy. There can be thousands of cells in a bone or a sample of a fabric. Each of them has its own copy of DNA code. It is possible to restore an initial genetic code by combining the information from many cells. One more encouraging factor is that only small percent from three billions symbols of a genetic code of a person is responsible for individual distinctions. For example, genetic codes of monkey and people coincide on 99%. It means that it is necessary to restore less than 1% of a code, i.e. only that part which defines individual distinctions between people. Certainly, all this tasks are essentially feasible. [9]

One more opportunity, which gives cloning of human being, can lay in partial correction of mistakes of the past. Probably, many millions of Nazi concentration camps victims could be cloned for restoration of the lost genetic branches. The same technology, which would clone Adolph Hitler, is possible to use to clone Anna Frank. Cloning of a human being would be the first offer of the world Jewish public as the constructive answer to the Holocaust. The serious concern in genofund pauperization still exists in Russia. It caused by Stalin’s mass executions of the best and brightest members of a society. Cloning could give a chance of a new life to people of the past, whose lives were unfairly and finished early.

The first genetically modified monkey.

On January 11, 2001 in the USA the first genetically modified monkey was born. It was named Andy. This name means “inserted DNA” in return perusal.

The monkey was born from ovule in which (маркерный) gene was included.   This gene can be seen with the help of a special microscope. Scientists speak, that similar technology can be used for strong modification of genetic material. With the help of this modification, it is possible to enter genes of human diseases, for example, a cancer of a breast.

«We can easily make introduction, for example, a gene of Altsgamer’s illness to speed up manufacture of a vaccine against this disease», - told one of researchers, Professor Dzherald Satan.

Altsgamer’s Illness is the specific form of senile dementia (full degradation of the person and disintegration of intelligence).

Cloned  kitten was sold for $50 000.

Biotechnological company Genetic Savings and Clone (GSC), located in California, has sold the first cloned kitten for $50 000.

A certain woman from Texas got the kitten. Her personal name is not disclosed because of fears of prosecution by opponents of cloning. Small Nikkei reminds its "parent" not only in appearance, but also in character and behaviour.

GSC Company is going to offer owners of died animals to get its copy.

For similar operation, future clients will need to hand samples of their animal’s fabrics in a special depository. Alas, until now there are fears about smaller security of clones from every possible illnesses and infections, and also smaller duration of life. [9]

Stanford University will create the mouse with a human brain.

In 2005, the American National Academy of Sciences plans to present recommendations about ethical experiments on creation of chimeras. The chimera is the mutant, which combines cells, fabrics and parts of bodies of people and animals. Now in the USA the laws, which limit such experiments, do not exist. Meanwhile, the quantity of such experiments constantly increases.

In particular, director of Steam Cells Institute of Stanford University professor Irving Vajssman is going to carry out an experiment on creation of mice, which will have a human brain.

The scientist plans to enter human neurons into rodent’s brain. Directly ahead of a birth the rodent will be killed. After opening of its brain, Vajssman hopes to learn, whether the architecture of a human brain will be generated. If it will take place, he will search for traces of «cognitive features», peculiar to people.

The Californian professor insists that his experiment will lead to the best understanding of mechanisms of work of a brain. It will be useful for struggle against a number of diseases.

Another experiment, which causes fear of the American academicians, is a creation of a human who will be born by mice. For this purpose, rodents will be genetically modified to make human gametes (sperm and ovules) from which a human embryo will be grown up.

The first hybrid embryos were created by the Chinese scientists from the Shanghai medical university in 2003. The scientists managed to connect cells of a human skin with ovules of rabbits. More than hundreds of embryos during several days developed in laboratory saucers. Then they have been destroyed for reception from them embryonic steam cells. [9]

Chronology of cloning.

II. Conclusion “The future development of cloning and genetic modification as I see it”.

Some politics in the United States now suggest saving us from all misfortunes connected with cloning of people by legislation. In my opinion, it is an interesting idea but if you examine the problem more soberly, you will see that serious problems actually do not exist. In several cases when abusing is possible, it can be prevented with the help of legislation. Unique objection which remains as a result of the analysis is that the technology of cloning is not perfect yet. It is the justification for future researches and experiments, but not for any interdiction.

Cloning of a human person is close to reality due to historical scientific breakthrough of the doctor Yang Wilmot and his colleagues from Great Britain. This opportunity potentially gives all of us fabulous advantages. Unfortunately, reports in mass-media and negative emotional reaction (which was generated by erroneous science fiction) influenced the discussion of this problem. The negative attitude towards cloning of people is only consequence of fascinating and new idea. If the public entered into error will impose a full interdiction on cloning of a person, a sad episode in the human history would appear.

Actually, the clone is not simply identical twin of some other person and they differ in periods. However, science-fiction novels and films have created an impression as if human clones are thoughtless zombies, monsters like Frankenstein, etc. However, it is complete nonsense. Human clones will be usual human beings, perfect as you and me. They will be born by usual women after 9 months of pregnancy; they will be born and will be grown up in a family, as well as any other child. They will need 18 years to become adults, as other people do. Hence, the clone-twin will be some decades younger than the original; therefore, there is no danger, that people will confuse the clone-twin to the original. Just as identical twins, a clone and his donor of DNA will have various fingerprints. The clone will not inherit anything from memoirs of the original individual. Due to all these distinctions, the clone is not an x-copy or the double of his donor, but a younger identical twin. Human clones will have the same legal rights and duties, as any other person does. Clones will be human beings in the fullest sense. You will not have the right to use a clone as a slave. The slavery was forbidden in the USA in 1865 and then by the United Nations Convention of the Human Rights.

It is necessary to emphasize, that the cloning of human beings should be carried out on an individual voluntary basis only. The alive person should give his or her legal permission. As well as the woman who will bear a clone-twin and then grow this child, should take her own decisions. A woman is required for cloning to bear a child. Therefore, there is no danger that scientists-villains will create thousands of clones in confidential laboratories. Cloning will be carried out only after requests and with necessary participation of usual people.

What can we expect from human clones? The answer can be found from exploration of identical twins. The clone repeats completely the appearance of the original individual and has the same growth and a constitution. For well-known supermodels and movie stars it can be the most important feature.

One more opportunity, cloning gives a human being a possibility to correct some mistakes of the past. Probably, many millions of Nazi concentration camps victims could be cloned for restoration of the lost genetic branches. The same technology, which makes it possible to clone Adolph Hitler, can be used to clone Anna Frank. Cloning of a human being would be the first offer of the World Jewish Community as the constructive answer to the Holocaust. The serious concern in genofund pauperization still exists in Russia. It is caused by Stalin’s mass executions of the best and brightest members of the Soviet society. Cloning could give a chance of a new life to people from the past, whose lives were unfairly and finished early.

It is obvious, that cloning of a human being has enormous potential advantages and some possible negative consequences. The unique threat is our own narrow intellectual self-satisfaction. As well as it has happened with many scientific achievements of the past, such as planes and computers. Clones of a human can make a contribution in the field of scientific progress and cultural development. In the certain cases possible abuses of cloning can be prevented with the help of the special legislation. With a drop of common sense and reasonable regulation, cloning of people is not something, which is necessary to be afraid of. We should expect it with impatience. In addition, we should support scientific researches, which will speed up realization of cloning. Exclusive people are the greatest treasures of the world. Cloning will allow us to keep and restore these treasures.

As you have already understood, there are two opinions concerning cloning: «to be afraid of the further cloning» and «to thumb the tub[2] of the project». I support the second opinion. Let's remember those far years when people’s religious beliefs forbade visiting doctors. But now the humankind cannot live without medicines and medicine. However, there are people who reject medical aid. Dozens of years will pass and cloning will be as natural satellite for humankind as now medicine is for us.

Let’s remember genetic modification. It is well known that there is the big progress in this area at the present time.  

It is known that tomatoes, carrots and peppers are rich in carotenoids, which help prevent cancer ant coronary heart disease. To make things easier for us, scientists are working to produce vegetables that are genetically modified to contain increased carotenoid levels. They have already succeeded in creating tomatoes with more than three times the normal “anti-cancer” power.

Animals can also be “engineered”. When salmon were modified with the gene for cold resistance from the flounder fish, they grew 10 times as fast as normal salmon because the inserted gene had interfered with their grown harmone gene. A pig was modified with a human gene to make it grow faster and leaner. But these efforts have resulted in numerous problems and serious diseases among the experimental animals.

In a 1994 field test, natural potatoes were planted at a distance of up to 1,100 metres from a batch of genetically modified potatoes. When seeds from the unmodified potatoes were later collected, it was found that 72% of the natural plants grown near the modified batch had absorbed the modified gene, and 35% of those grown further away had also done so. In another study in the same year, scientists at the Scottish Crop Research Institute found that pollen from genetically modified rapeseed had fertilized plants up to 2.5 kilometers away.

Учитывая то, что генная инженерия может привнести в продукты ранее не известные опасные свойства, каждый генетически модифицированный продукт должен быть подвергнут обследованию, способному выявить самый широкий спектр возможных опасностей.

Taking into account that genetic engineering can introduce unknown dangerous properties in products; each genetically modified product should be subjected to the inspection (which should be capable to reveal the widest spectrum of possible dangers).

I think that nowadays cloning of people is a problem of far future. Probably, after centuries, our planet will be occupied by cloned people and it will be absolutely not surprising. I think we will not see it first-hand, but we can help our children and grand children to get ready for these great events, to create the laws to control the projects connected with cloning and genetic modification.

The list of used literature:

1. Н. Грин, У. Стаут, Д. Тейлор, «Биология». «Мир», 1993.

2. Ф. Киберштерн. Гены и генетика. Москва, «Параграф», 1995.

3. «Знание-сила», №4, 1998 г.

4. «Природа», №1000, декабрь 1998 г.

5. С. Г. Мамонтов, «Биология». «Дрофа», 2001.

6. «Иностранные языки в школе», №7, 2004.

7. «Химия», 9 класс, Л. С. Гузей. «Дрофа», 1997.

8. «Основы общей биологии», 9 класс, И. Н. Пономарева. «Вентана-Граф», 2001.

9. www. rambler. ru

[1] BSE – bovine spongiform encephalopathy, a usually fatal disease of cattle, believed to be caused by either prions or virinos.

[2] To thumb the tub – to promote and push the project as quickly as possible.

Страницы: 1, 2